Bibliography

Here is a complete bibliography of all the sources, books and websites I have used to compile this blog. I hope it is useful for any further research. 
 

Ancient Sources

-Apollodorus, (c. 2^th Century BC) Library and Epitome, found on Perseus
Digital Library, available from:
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0022:text=Library:book=3:chapter=4&highlight=semele  
(accessed 19.11.11.)

-Herodotus. (c. 5^th Century BC) The Histories, Available from:
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.60.4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 (accessed 30.11.11.)

-Hesiod, translated by White-Evelyn, Hugh G, (2008) Theogony, USA: Digireads.com.

-Hesiod, (c. 8^th Century BC) Theogony. Available from: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D104 (accessed 22.11.11.)

- Homeric Hymns 11 and 28, in Crudden, Michael, (2001) The Homeric Hymns, UK: Oxford University Press.

-Ovid. (c. 1^st century AD) Arachne and Minerva, from Metamorphoses. Available from http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Ov.+Met.+6&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0028 (accessed 19.10.11.)

-Pausanias, (c. 2^nd Century AD) Description of Greece. Available from: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.30.4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 (accessed 30.11.11.)

Books

-Brown, Robert, (2004) The Great Dionysiak Myth Part 1, USA: Kessinger Publishing.

-Burkert, W. and J. Raffen, (1987) Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

-Buxton, R.G.A, (2009) Forms of Astonishment: Greeks Myths of Metamorphosis, UK: Oxford University Press.

-Chrimes, K. M. T. (1949) Ancient Sparta: A Re-examination of the Evidence, UK: Manchester University Press.

-Colakis, M. and M. J. Masello, (2007) Classical Mythology and More: A Reader Workbook, USA: Bolchazy-Carducci.

- Cox, William, (1870) The Mythology of the Aryan Nations, Germany: Longman, Greens.

-Deacy, Susan, (2008) Athena, UK: Routledge.

-Deacy, Susan and Alexandra Villing, eds, (2001) Athena in the Classical World, Leiden: Brill.

-Deacy, S in Ogden, D, (2010) A companion to Greek Religion, UK: John Wiley and Sons.

-Evslin, Bernard, (2006) Gods, Demigods and Demons, UK: I.B Taurus & Co Ltd.

-Farnell, L. R. (2010) The Cults of the Greek State, Volume 1, UK: Cambridge University Press.

-Fredal, James, (2006) Rhetorical Action in Ancient Athens: Persuasive Artistry from Solon to Demosthenes, USA: SIU Press.

-Gelpi, B. C, (1992) Shelley’s Goddess: Maternity, Language, Subjectivity, UK: OUP.

-Neils, Jennifer, (1996) Worshipping Athena: Panathenaia and Parthenon, USA: University of Wisconsin Press.

-Lefkowitz, Mary, (2003) Greek Gods, Human Lives, USA: Yale University Press.

-Littleton, Scott, (2005) Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology, Volume 4, USA: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.

-Littleton, Scott. (2005) Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology, Volume 11, USA: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.

-Morrison, Lesley, (2011) The Healing Wisdom of Birds: An everyday guide to their spiritual songs and symbolism, USA: Llewellyn Worldwide.

-Pritchett, W. K, (1974) The Greek State at War, Volume 4, USA: University of California Press.

-Westmoreland, Perry, (2007) Ancient Greek Beliefs, USA: Lee and Vance Publishing and Co.

-Zaidman. B, (1992) Religion in the Ancient Greek City. UK: Cambridge University Press.

Websites

-‘Artemis.’ Encyclopedia Mythica from Encyclopedia Mythica Online, Available from http://www.pantheon.org/articles/a/artemis.html (accessed 17.11.11.)

-http://www.theoi.com/ (accessed 20.11.11.)

Athena and Athens

Who is Athena?

I asked this question at the start of this blog, thinking it would result in a clear, definite answer. But what I discovered is that Athena cannot be summed up in a sentence. She is masculine and feminine, the virgin warrior, Zeus’s single parented or ‘third born’ daughter, ugly and sexual, the vengeful punisher and the leader of heroes. Athena is a contradiction; she breaks social and gender specific boundaries, but is venerated as the patron and role model of Athenian citizens.

With regard to Athena and Athens, their shared name illustrates a shared history; they can be studied together in a way that other gods and cities cannot. I would argue that, despite being largely considered an outsider to Greece[1] and being widely venerated in other cities, for example Athena Poliouchos (city protector) of Sparta, she was much more closely linked to Athens than other places, and of more importance to Athens  than other patrons to their cities. Athens was unusual in Greece; it was monocentric – the Acropolis was the physical centre of the city, and was both the political and religious centre. In comparison, Hera’s cult site in Argos - the Argive Heraion – was situated on the outskirts of the city; religion and politics was kept separate.



Contest between Athena and Poseidon to become
Patron of Athens
West pediment of Parthenon,
440-432 BC

Eller reflects on Athena and Athens’ shared name, and links the myth of Athena and Poseidon’s battle to be patron deity, referred to in my last post, with the notion of pre-history matriarchal leadership, something we touched upon in class. Because of the vote of one more woman, Athena was victorious. But Poseidon was furious and ‘Apollo recommended that (…) to assuage Poseidon’s anger (…) men should take away women’s right to vote, refuse to call them Athenians and stop the practice if naming children after their mothers.’[2]  So the female goddess won over a male figure, but with her victory came the oppression of mortal women. I called Athena the vengeful punisher and leader of heroes; this can be seen throughout my blog – in my introduction I referred to the punishment of Arachne for claiming to be more skilled at weaving than Athena, and in my last entry I included an image of Athena guiding Heracles to heaven. Despite her own female victory over a male, Athena punishes women and glorifies men.

So who is this changeable goddess? In my first entry for this blog, I talked about Zaidman’s idea that the gods were creations, not creators. Athena was not an omniscient, perfect ruler of the cosmos, she had humanlike flaws, is one of a collection of deities and was subject to fate.  I mentioned that some myths and cultures consider her an outsider to Greece; Athena Xenia (protector of strangers) is other, different and she protects those like her. [3] Her masculine roles further emphasise her otherness – she is Athena Ariea (of war), Promachos (champion) and Eryma (defender.) She does not fit the Athenian stereotype, but as Athena Parthenos (maiden), Athena Nike (victory) and Athena Polias (of the city) they venerated her as she was.  

Through my study of this complex goddess and her epithets in relation to topics arising from my Ancient Greek Religion lectures, I have seen that her diverse nature encompasses more than I originally thought, and through this diversity, she is intertwined with the myths, roles and relationships of other deities; she is at the heart of Athenian culture and highly significant in the Olympic Pantheon.

For an extensive list of Athena’s epithets, I have included a link to this website: http://www.theoi.com/Cult/AthenaTitles.html

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[1] Farnell, L. R. (2010) The Cults of the Greek State, Volume 1, UK: Cambridge University Press, 268..

[2] Eller, Cynthia. (2011) Gentlemen and Amazons: the Myth of Matriarchal Pre-history, UK: Cambridge University Press, 16.  

[3] Chrimes, K. M. T. (1949) Ancient Sparta: A Re-examination of the Evidence, UK: Manchester University Press, 155.  

Athena, Peisistratos and the Chariot

Greek deities consistently crossed the boundary between gods and mortals; they manifested in different forms, including human, to ensure justice and satisfy their desires. We picture the ancient Greek people as respectful and god-fearing, and they were. However some, such as the tyrantPeisistratos, breached this fragile boundary and used the image of a deity for his own benefit. But is it significant? Herodotus describes Peisistratos riding into Athens on a chariot, accompanied by a woman named Phye who was dressed as Athena, the city’s patron deity.[1] He appears disbelieving that the pious Athenians would be tricked but in class we suggested that perhaps they were not duped but willing participants in Phye’s elevation to divine status. I want to look at the significance of the chariot in relation to mortals crossing this boundary.

Athena Hippia (goddess of the horse), and sometimes her son Erichthonios[2], are credited with inventing the chariot and harnessing Poseidon’s horses to enable their use by humanity. However, due to Greece’s rocky terrain, chariots were rarely used in war.[3] Instead they were important in weddings, funerals and processions. After being welcomed back into power, Peisistratos reorganised the Panathenaia to include music, games and a chariot race.[4] The inclusion of chariots alludes to Peisistratos’s return; Fredal suggests that the Panathenaic procession became ‘a re-enactment of the tyrant’s triumphant march (…) and thus an annual endorsement of Peisistrastid rule.’ [5] The procession could also be considered a renewal of the bond between Peisistratos and Athena.

Through my studies, I’m realising that the links between Athena and Poseidon are prevalent. As I said, Poseidon was the father of horses;[6] Pausanias wrote about a shared altar for the deities at a place named the Hill of Horses.[7] They also competed to become the patron deity of Athens. Furthermore, as I discussed in my ‘Creation’ post when looking at Athena Tritogeneia, some myths place Poseidon as Athena’s father. Souidas notes that the deities share the Hippios/Hippia epithet, and wrote ‘she was the daughter of Poseidon and Polyphe (…) she was called Hippeia from having first constructed a chariot (…) the war-cart, like poseidon, passed from Libye in to Greece.’[8]

Apotheosis of Heracles
Attic Red Figure on Pelike, c. 410BC
Antikensammlungen, Munich, Germany

In ancient Greece, chariots elevated the rider above ordinary mortals; departing warriors and valiant heroes became godlike. This picture shows Athena taking Heracles to heaven in her chariot after his apotheosis. After being exiled, Peisistratos wanted to win back the support of the Athenians. By riding in the chariot with Athena the vehicle creator and patron of Heroes, he echoes Heracles’ and his ascent to heaven and he asserts himself as superior to normal mortals; he transcends the divine/mortal boundary and he too becomes godlike.

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[1] Herodotus. (c. 5^th Century BC) The Histories, Available from: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.60.4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 (accessed 30.11.11.)

[2] Neils, Jenifer, (1996) Worshipping Athena: Panathenaia and Parthenon, USA: University of Wisconsin, 61.

[3] Pritchett, W. K, (1974) The Greek State at War, Volume 4, USA: University of California Press, 14.

[4] Deacy, S in Ogden, D, (2010) A companion to Greek Religion, UK: John Wiley and Sons, 230.

[5] Fredal, James, (2006) Rhetorical Action in Ancient Athens: Persuasive Artistry from Solon to Demosthenes, USA: SIU Press, 98.

[6] Deacy, Susan, (2008) Athena, UK: Routledge, 48.  

[7] Pausanias, (c. 2^nd Century AD) Description of Greece. Available from: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.30.4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 (accessed 30.11.11.)

[8] Brown, Robert, (2004) The Great Dionysiak Myth Part 1, USA: Kessinger Publishing, 423. 

Anthropomorphism

The tendency to anthropomorphise gods throughout history is intriguing.

Why, when humanity looks to gods as superior beings, who provide guidance and an explanation for existence, we envision them as human? Why do we limit their capabilities – if we cannot do the things we rely on the gods for, how will they succeed?

Despite asking these questions, I consistently picture them in human form without really thinking about why I am doing so. I’ve learnt that Athena and Ares are figureheads of war, but are also war itself, and that Zeus’ true form is lightening, too powerful to be witnessed by human eyes, as portrayed in the story of Semele in Apollodorus’s Library and Epitome.[1] But when I envisage these divine forces, I restrict them to a human form. I want to confront the representation of these diverse divinities, and question why these gods – so powerful and very much inhuman – are depicted in the same form as mortals. Perhaps it says less about the gods themselves and more about humans who struggle to worship something so daunting and other.  

Athena's anthropomorphic portrayal is unusual. Unlike Zeus, whose supremacy and strength is mirrored in his masculine human form, Athena is a female virgin, clad in armour. This doesn't fit the mortal female stereotype and highlights her difference from humanity. Athena is not the docile, domestic woman, she's formidable, Glaukopis. Glaukopis has been translated in many ways, including darting/gleaming-eyed, grey/blue-eyed and owl-eyed. Like Zeus’ eagle, the owl (the glaux-hence glaukopis being translated as owl-eyed) was Athena’s key attribute. Athena was often depicted holding an owl, or manifesting as one and they embodied the same qualities, for example wisdom. Athena Polymetis (wise in many ways) absorbed the wisdom of Metis whilst inside Zeus. Even now, the owl is recognised as a symbol of wisdom, and both Athena and the owl’s darting eyes suggest awareness and are unnerving and potentially fearsome:

Homeric Hymn 28: To Athena
‘Golden, all-gleaming; every immortal was gripped with awe
(…)At the might of the bright-eyed goddess Olympus reeled.’[2]

Athena Tetradrachm.
Athens, approx 450 BC. British Museum

Athena is portrayed as powerful, awesome, Glaukopis. This image is of an Athenian Tetradrachm, depicting Athena on one side and an owl on the other. In our lecture the anthropomorphic image on this coin raised the question ‘why is Athena ugly?’ Her features are pronounced; her large nose and wide eyes could be compared to the eyes and beak of her owl. Perhaps the use of anthropomorphism to comprehend the gods goes further-animals are used to understand individual traits. This is true for other deities, for example, Hera is referred to as Bo-Opis (Doe-eyed,) suggesting her femininity and demure, modest nature.[3] Perhaps what is construed as Athena’s ugliness in images like this accurately reflects her attributes. As Athena Glaukopis, her gaze was formidable and uncomfortable.[4] The goddess of war was fearsome and intimidating.

As a maiden, she did not need to be beautiful. Llewellyn-Jones argues that ‘she takes no pleasure in her own nudity; she is born clothed and armed and presumably only removes her clothing for her first bath.’[5] Although the body of the virgin is attractive to men, Athena’s primary purpose was not as a sexualised goddess. However, that said, sexualisation of the goddess did occur from the fourth century BC onward. Eithne, Quelin and I saw Immortals directed by Tarsem Singh; a film based on the adventures of Theseus and the battle of the gods to prevent the release of the titans. In this, the representation of Athena really struck me. (Athena in Immortals: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sCFJ2HsD9sA) Obviously the silver screen demands beautiful people, but at first we thought her to be Aphrodite; she was delicate, blonde, feminine, wore none of her typical attire - the aegis, her armour - and was dressed in provocative golden fabric instead. As she fights, her skin is on display, and in particular her legs are revealed which links to a point raised by Llewellyn-Jones regarding the aforementioned rape by Hephaistos. He comments that as Athena tries to escape, she lifts her skirt for ease; ‘it is this gesture that enables Hephaistos to ejaculate over (her) otherwise decently covered leg.’[6] Bare flesh is associated with sexuality, and the portrayal of Athena in Immortals reflects this.


In contrast to my confusion over Athena's beauty, Ritter reflects on Aphrodite's warlike appearance. He considers Blomberg's study of a Greek goddess on Corinthian coins which concludes that 'the helmeted goddess could only be Aphrodite.'[7] As can be seen in all the images of Athena included in my blog, the helmet, signifying readiness for war, is Athena's attribute. But Blomberg argues that the Corinthians wouldn't choose Athena over their patron deity and that perhaps the helmet had different associations in Corinth. As Athena's portrayal becomes more sexual in both ancient representations and modern cinema, Aphrodite could potentially gain a more masculine dimension through Corinthian coinage.


In Greek myth, the presence of gods was usually kept hidden from mortals; they were dangerous, formidable, and indeed other. Anthropomorphising deities made them familiar, easier to understand. As I mentioned, humanity fears that which is unknown and different so making the gods appear human made them more accessible. Quoting De Visser, Buxton wrote in his study of Greek metamorphosis that ‘nowhere did anthropomorphism achieve a greater state of completion than among the Greeks.’[8] Images of the deities in human form are distinguishable to us and would have been recognisable in ancient Greece through clothing and facial features. Furthermore, not only were these human forms depicted on vase paintings, but also on currency, in the same way we have our leaders and monarchs. I agree with De Visser – anthropomorphic images of the gods were as important as the gods themselves, and worshipped as such.   


Lefkowitz wrote that ‘many Greeks traced their own families back to a god or hero.’[9] For example, Spartans believed they were directly descended from the demigod Heracles. In Christianity, Jesus was the human son of God. Anthropomorphic deities are convenient-they look human so can therefore be the parent of a human child.



Zeus

Marble, n.d, Altes Museum,

Berlin



                                  

Whilst considering the importance of anthropomorphic depictions, I can’t help but liken Zeus to the Judaeo-Christian God. Zeus, head of the pantheon can manifest in various ways but is frequently depicted as a man. God is omnipotent, the sole ruler and the creator of the universe but is restricted to the normality of the human form and worshipped in this state. Conjure an image of an older man; strong, bearded, robed, deep voice. Is this God, Zeus, or is it both? Ancient Greek statues depict this image, the Romans took elements from it and in turn Christianity developed; the gods remained similar. 

God
Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel,
1508-1512

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[1] Apollodorus, (c. 2^th Century BC) Library and Epitome, found of Perseus Digital Library, available from http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0022:text=Library:book=3:chapter=4&highlight=semele (accessed 19.11.11.)

[2] Crudden, Micheal, (2001) The Homeric Hymns, UK: Oxford University Press, 88.

[3] Deacy, Susan, (2008) Athena, UK: Routledge, 84.
[4]Morrison, Lesley, (2011) The Healing Wisdom of Birds: An everyday guide to their spiritual songs and symbolism, USA: Llewellyn Worldwide, 14.

[5] Deacy, Susan and Alexandra Villing, eds, (2001) Athena in the Classical World, Leiden: Brill, 247.

[6] Ibid, 257.
[7] Ritter, S. in Deacy, Susan and Alexandra Villing, eds, (2001) Athena in the Classical World, Leiden: Brill, 144.

[8] Buxton, R.G.A, (2009) Forms of Astonishment: Greeks Myths of Metamorphosis, UK: Oxford University Press, 189.

[9] Lefkowitz, Mary, (2003) Greek Gods, Human Lives, USA: Yale University Press, 31.

Polytheism

Ancient Greek religion was not only compromised of a diverse pantheon, but of deities who were diverse themselves. As I mentioned in my first post, Greek gods were external to creation, yet could be found in every aspect of life. For example, Hestia was the goddess of the hearth, but was also the hearth itself, and was present in every dwelling place. However, she was also the protector of orphans and lost children and patroness of marriage.[1] Mortals attributed everything to the gods; fertility, protection, victory, war, hunting, craftsmanship-with so many roles to fulfil gods had to take on numerous responsibilities and therefore had numerous epithets to represent them.


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Athena Promachos.
Bronze, C480 BC,
Athens National Arch Museum

Epithets also signified the personalities and circumstances of the gods. Athena is Athena Parthenos-the maiden goddess. She maintains her chastity and refuses men; similarly Hestia refused the proposals of Apollo and Poseidon and Artemis was fiercely protective of her virginity, punishing any who pursued her or even accidentally witnessed her naked form.[2] A woman’s duty in life was to marry, provide children and perform domestic duties for the family, so the choice of these female deities is unusual. While Hestia is still performing a feminine role by being in every home, Athena’s duties are more masculine; she is Athena Polias (of the city) –the protector of Athens, and Athena Promachos (champion) –the leader in war. This role was highly important, and praised in ancient Greek literature:

‘Homeric Hymn 11: To Athena

With Pallas Athena, protectress of cities, my song begins,

With that fearsome goddess who cares with Ares for warlike works-

The sacking of cities, the scream of battle, the clash of the fray-

And also ensures the army’s safe parting and homeward return.

Farewell to you, goddess! Grant us success and prosperous life’.[3]

Athene and Ares
Attic Black figure on Amphora, C510-500,
Tampa Museum of Art

This links to my next point; deities shared their roles. For example, Athena and Demeter were both associated with agriculture, and Athena and Poseidon with horsemanship. This hymn refers to Ares, who is linked to Athena through war. Ares is the fearsome god of war and, like Hestia, is the personification of war itself. Associated with the ‘fury of battle,’[4] he enjoys the damage and suffering caused. Alternatively, Athena is the wise goddess of war, and as seen in the Homeric hymn above, the guardian of cities and fighters which alludes to a caring, more feminine side of her personality. This side of Athena - the maiden protector of men and of Athens- was worshipped in the Parthenon.

A note about the pictures included:

The first image is of a bronze statuette of Athena Promachos. It shows Athena in full armour with her hand raised (she would have been wielding her spear) ready to defend Athens. This statuette is a replica of Phidias’s great statue.

The second picture depicts Athena and Ares dressed for battle. Their bodies are mirrored, representing their shared role. However, it is interesting to note that they are facing each other as in myth Athena and Ares were often on different sides.  Ares was often supporting the losing side, with Athena triumphant – the favourite of Zeus and Athenians, she never lost, and those who had her support would emerge victorious. Burkert and Raffen discuss the contrast between the two deities in Homer’s Iliad and portray Athena as rather cruel in her treatment of Ares; ‘she treats him even more shamefully in the Diomedes Aristeia’ [5] by removing his armour and later wounding him. I don’t agree; instead I would argue she is portrayed as cunning and obedient to her father, a crucial trait in women, whereas Ares is foolish. He rushes into battle and when pitted against Athena he strikes her aegis-her protective device- ineffectively. Athena is not acting cruelly, she is outwitting Ares.

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[1] Evslin, Bernard, (2006) Gods, Demigods and Demons, UK: I.B Taurus & Co Ltd, 94.

[2] ‘Artemis.’ Encyclopedia Mythica from Encyclopedia Mythica Online, Available from http://www.pantheon.org/articles/a/artemis.html (accessed 17.11.11)

[3] Crudden, Michael, (2001) The Homeric Hymns, UK: Oxford University Press, 80.

[4] Deacy, Susan and Alexandra Villing, eds, (2001)  Athena in the Classical World, UK: Brill, 309.
[5] Burkert, W. and J. Raffen, (1987) Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 169.

Creation

‘At first Chaos came to be, but next wide-bosomed Earth, the ever-sure foundation of all.’[1]

Hesiod’s Theogony is the ancient Greek story of creation. Like the Book of Genesis, it declares that in the beginning there was a void-Chaos, nothingness.  However, Genesis decrees that the spirit of God was in the void and became the creator of all, while Hesiod tells of the creation of the gods themselves. This highlights one of the greatest differences between Judaeo-Christian religion and the ancient Greek gods. God is the omnipotent, just, divine ruler of humanity, whereas the Greek divinities shared power and were confined to certain roles. They could fall victim to the powers of other gods, could be tricked, seduced and broke the rules they set for humankind.

They also were fearful.

In the lecture on Zeus, we discussed his status as head of the pantheon. Was he king of the gods or a tyrant?Was he confident or insecure?

Zeus only gained his status by overthrowing his father Kronos. Kronos in turn had gained power through castrating his father Ouranos. Zeus feared being overthrown; when Athena emerged bedecked in armour and wielding a spear, Zeus and Olympus dreaded what she could do.

Athena’s significance in the ancient Greek pantheon is immediate. Rhea and Ouranous prophesised that Zeus’s first wife Metis would bear a son who would overthrow him. Fearing the prophecy and desperate to prevent it, he swallowed Metis whole whilst she was pregnant with Athena. Athena was born anyway, armoured and encompassing her mother’s wisdom. We could also view her as a representation of Zeus’s wisdom as she was born from his head. Instead of the prophesised superior son, Athena was considered Zeus’ equal, an embodiment of Zeus’s attributes; ‘she is like her father, with power that can dazzle the universe.’[2]

Related to the idea of a fearful Zeus, Gelpi wrote that Zeus’s actions towards Prometheus for stealing fire and giving it to humankind seems like ‘the overreaction of a young and insecure ruler’[3] and also notes that in Prometheus Bound, Aeschylus stresses ‘Zeus’s tyrannical misuse of power.’[4] If we associate insecurity with Zeus, perhaps it stems from his fear of a divine rebellion and that leadership was not solely his. Aeschylus’s emphasis that Zeus wrongly used his power to punish Prometheus could be read as Zeus cementing his position as head of pantheon, showing his strength and warning possible insurgents that he is in charge. 



Athena Parthenos
C2 AD,
National Archaeological Museum of Athens

Interestingly, Athena is a virgin goddess; Athena Parthenos’s chastity satiates the fear of her producing the son that could overthrow Zeus, although she does foster the child Erichthonios – Hephaistos is unsuccessful in his rape attempt, but his semen is wiped to the ground and Erichthonios is born. The colossal statue of Athena Parthenos that stood in the Parthenon venerated her virgin status, but also emphasised her role as Athena Polias (of the city) protector of Athenians. She held Nike (victory); ‘Indeed the two deities were sometimes combined into a single figure, Athena Nike’[5] which could symbolise Athens’ success. Also, as can be seen in the image of the ancient replica of Athena Parthenos, protected behind her shield is a snake. Erichthonios was associated with serpents and often depicted as half man, half snake.[6] The hidden snake could be seen as Athena Polias guarding both her child Erichthonios and Athens.

‘The maiden bright-eyed Tritogeneia, equal to her father in strength and in wise understanding.’[7]

This quote from Theogony illustrates my earlier point; Athena was considered Zeus’s equal, unlike any other in the Greek pantheon. But scholars have had difficulty agreeing on why Athena was referred as Tritogeneia. In fact, Cox wrote that ‘it is strange that this god (…) should have so far disappeared from the memory of the Greeks as to leave them at a loss to account for the epithet.’[8] Not only do we not fully understand its meaning, but the ancient Greeks couldn’t define it! Hesiod’s account of Athena’s birth story says that she emerged from Zeus’s head on the banks of the river Trito. But Cox argues that this could have referred to more than one place, so therefore every stream became the birth place of Athena.[9] Another possible meaning is that Tritogeneia comes from ‘Trito,’ the Aeolian word for ‘head,’[10] relating to her birth from Zeus. A popular translation is ‘third-born,’ referring to Zeus, Metis and herself.  Third born could also mean that she was Zeus’s third child. With what I now know about her birthplace being one or every stream, ruled over by the sea god, and Pausanias's reference to the Libyan legend - 'the Goddess is the daughter of Poseidon and Lake Tritonis, and for this reason has blue eyes like Poseidon' [11]- I suggest that perhaps the three involved are Athena, Zeus and Poseidon, or even Zeus, Metis and Poseidon; three parents to create one goddess to equal the power and wisdom of Zeus.

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[1] Hesiod, (c. 8^th Century BC) Theogony. Available from: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D104 (accessed 22.11.11.)

[2] Deacy, Susan, (2008) Athena, UK: Routledge, 27.

[3] Gelpi, B. C, (1992) Shelley’s Goddess: Maternity, Language, Subjectivity, UK: OUP, 139.

[4] Ibid, 140. 

[5] Littleton, Scott, (2005) Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology, Volume 11, USA: Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 975.

[6] Littleton, Scott, (2005) Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology, Volume 4, USA: Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 486.

[7] Hesiod, (c. 8^th Century BC) Theogony. Available from: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D886 (accessed 22.11.11)

[8] Cox, William, (1870) The Mythology of the Aryan Nations, Germany: Longman, Greens, 440.

[9] Ibid.

[10] Westmoreland, Perry, (2007) Ancient Greek Beliefs, USA: Lee and Vance Publishing and Co, 47.

[11] Pausanias, (c. 2^nd Century AD) Description of Greece. Available from http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D14%3Asection%3D6 (accessed 28.11.11)