Bibliography

Here is a complete bibliography of all the sources, books and websites I have used to compile this blog. I hope it is useful for any further research. 
 

Ancient Sources

-Apollodorus, (c. 2^th Century BC) Library and Epitome, found on Perseus
Digital Library, available from:
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0022:text=Library:book=3:chapter=4&highlight=semele  
(accessed 19.11.11.)

-Herodotus. (c. 5^th Century BC) The Histories, Available from:
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.60.4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 (accessed 30.11.11.)

-Hesiod, translated by White-Evelyn, Hugh G, (2008) Theogony, USA: Digireads.com.

-Hesiod, (c. 8^th Century BC) Theogony. Available from: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D104 (accessed 22.11.11.)

- Homeric Hymns 11 and 28, in Crudden, Michael, (2001) The Homeric Hymns, UK: Oxford University Press.

-Ovid. (c. 1^st century AD) Arachne and Minerva, from Metamorphoses. Available from http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Ov.+Met.+6&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0028 (accessed 19.10.11.)

-Pausanias, (c. 2^nd Century AD) Description of Greece. Available from: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.30.4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 (accessed 30.11.11.)

Books

-Brown, Robert, (2004) The Great Dionysiak Myth Part 1, USA: Kessinger Publishing.

-Burkert, W. and J. Raffen, (1987) Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

-Buxton, R.G.A, (2009) Forms of Astonishment: Greeks Myths of Metamorphosis, UK: Oxford University Press.

-Chrimes, K. M. T. (1949) Ancient Sparta: A Re-examination of the Evidence, UK: Manchester University Press.

-Colakis, M. and M. J. Masello, (2007) Classical Mythology and More: A Reader Workbook, USA: Bolchazy-Carducci.

- Cox, William, (1870) The Mythology of the Aryan Nations, Germany: Longman, Greens.

-Deacy, Susan, (2008) Athena, UK: Routledge.

-Deacy, Susan and Alexandra Villing, eds, (2001) Athena in the Classical World, Leiden: Brill.

-Deacy, S in Ogden, D, (2010) A companion to Greek Religion, UK: John Wiley and Sons.

-Evslin, Bernard, (2006) Gods, Demigods and Demons, UK: I.B Taurus & Co Ltd.

-Farnell, L. R. (2010) The Cults of the Greek State, Volume 1, UK: Cambridge University Press.

-Fredal, James, (2006) Rhetorical Action in Ancient Athens: Persuasive Artistry from Solon to Demosthenes, USA: SIU Press.

-Gelpi, B. C, (1992) Shelley’s Goddess: Maternity, Language, Subjectivity, UK: OUP.

-Neils, Jennifer, (1996) Worshipping Athena: Panathenaia and Parthenon, USA: University of Wisconsin Press.

-Lefkowitz, Mary, (2003) Greek Gods, Human Lives, USA: Yale University Press.

-Littleton, Scott, (2005) Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology, Volume 4, USA: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.

-Littleton, Scott. (2005) Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology, Volume 11, USA: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.

-Morrison, Lesley, (2011) The Healing Wisdom of Birds: An everyday guide to their spiritual songs and symbolism, USA: Llewellyn Worldwide.

-Pritchett, W. K, (1974) The Greek State at War, Volume 4, USA: University of California Press.

-Westmoreland, Perry, (2007) Ancient Greek Beliefs, USA: Lee and Vance Publishing and Co.

-Zaidman. B, (1992) Religion in the Ancient Greek City. UK: Cambridge University Press.

Websites

-‘Artemis.’ Encyclopedia Mythica from Encyclopedia Mythica Online, Available from http://www.pantheon.org/articles/a/artemis.html (accessed 17.11.11.)

-http://www.theoi.com/ (accessed 20.11.11.)

Athena and Athens

Who is Athena?

I asked this question at the start of this blog, thinking it would result in a clear, definite answer. But what I discovered is that Athena cannot be summed up in a sentence. She is masculine and feminine, the virgin warrior, Zeus’s single parented or ‘third born’ daughter, ugly and sexual, the vengeful punisher and the leader of heroes. Athena is a contradiction; she breaks social and gender specific boundaries, but is venerated as the patron and role model of Athenian citizens.

With regard to Athena and Athens, their shared name illustrates a shared history; they can be studied together in a way that other gods and cities cannot. I would argue that, despite being largely considered an outsider to Greece[1] and being widely venerated in other cities, for example Athena Poliouchos (city protector) of Sparta, she was much more closely linked to Athens than other places, and of more importance to Athens  than other patrons to their cities. Athens was unusual in Greece; it was monocentric – the Acropolis was the physical centre of the city, and was both the political and religious centre. In comparison, Hera’s cult site in Argos - the Argive Heraion – was situated on the outskirts of the city; religion and politics was kept separate.



Contest between Athena and Poseidon to become
Patron of Athens
West pediment of Parthenon,
440-432 BC

Eller reflects on Athena and Athens’ shared name, and links the myth of Athena and Poseidon’s battle to be patron deity, referred to in my last post, with the notion of pre-history matriarchal leadership, something we touched upon in class. Because of the vote of one more woman, Athena was victorious. But Poseidon was furious and ‘Apollo recommended that (…) to assuage Poseidon’s anger (…) men should take away women’s right to vote, refuse to call them Athenians and stop the practice if naming children after their mothers.’[2]  So the female goddess won over a male figure, but with her victory came the oppression of mortal women. I called Athena the vengeful punisher and leader of heroes; this can be seen throughout my blog – in my introduction I referred to the punishment of Arachne for claiming to be more skilled at weaving than Athena, and in my last entry I included an image of Athena guiding Heracles to heaven. Despite her own female victory over a male, Athena punishes women and glorifies men.

So who is this changeable goddess? In my first entry for this blog, I talked about Zaidman’s idea that the gods were creations, not creators. Athena was not an omniscient, perfect ruler of the cosmos, she had humanlike flaws, is one of a collection of deities and was subject to fate.  I mentioned that some myths and cultures consider her an outsider to Greece; Athena Xenia (protector of strangers) is other, different and she protects those like her. [3] Her masculine roles further emphasise her otherness – she is Athena Ariea (of war), Promachos (champion) and Eryma (defender.) She does not fit the Athenian stereotype, but as Athena Parthenos (maiden), Athena Nike (victory) and Athena Polias (of the city) they venerated her as she was.  

Through my study of this complex goddess and her epithets in relation to topics arising from my Ancient Greek Religion lectures, I have seen that her diverse nature encompasses more than I originally thought, and through this diversity, she is intertwined with the myths, roles and relationships of other deities; she is at the heart of Athenian culture and highly significant in the Olympic Pantheon.

For an extensive list of Athena’s epithets, I have included a link to this website: http://www.theoi.com/Cult/AthenaTitles.html

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[1] Farnell, L. R. (2010) The Cults of the Greek State, Volume 1, UK: Cambridge University Press, 268..

[2] Eller, Cynthia. (2011) Gentlemen and Amazons: the Myth of Matriarchal Pre-history, UK: Cambridge University Press, 16.  

[3] Chrimes, K. M. T. (1949) Ancient Sparta: A Re-examination of the Evidence, UK: Manchester University Press, 155.  

Athena, Peisistratos and the Chariot

Greek deities consistently crossed the boundary between gods and mortals; they manifested in different forms, including human, to ensure justice and satisfy their desires. We picture the ancient Greek people as respectful and god-fearing, and they were. However some, such as the tyrantPeisistratos, breached this fragile boundary and used the image of a deity for his own benefit. But is it significant? Herodotus describes Peisistratos riding into Athens on a chariot, accompanied by a woman named Phye who was dressed as Athena, the city’s patron deity.[1] He appears disbelieving that the pious Athenians would be tricked but in class we suggested that perhaps they were not duped but willing participants in Phye’s elevation to divine status. I want to look at the significance of the chariot in relation to mortals crossing this boundary.

Athena Hippia (goddess of the horse), and sometimes her son Erichthonios[2], are credited with inventing the chariot and harnessing Poseidon’s horses to enable their use by humanity. However, due to Greece’s rocky terrain, chariots were rarely used in war.[3] Instead they were important in weddings, funerals and processions. After being welcomed back into power, Peisistratos reorganised the Panathenaia to include music, games and a chariot race.[4] The inclusion of chariots alludes to Peisistratos’s return; Fredal suggests that the Panathenaic procession became ‘a re-enactment of the tyrant’s triumphant march (…) and thus an annual endorsement of Peisistrastid rule.’ [5] The procession could also be considered a renewal of the bond between Peisistratos and Athena.

Through my studies, I’m realising that the links between Athena and Poseidon are prevalent. As I said, Poseidon was the father of horses;[6] Pausanias wrote about a shared altar for the deities at a place named the Hill of Horses.[7] They also competed to become the patron deity of Athens. Furthermore, as I discussed in my ‘Creation’ post when looking at Athena Tritogeneia, some myths place Poseidon as Athena’s father. Souidas notes that the deities share the Hippios/Hippia epithet, and wrote ‘she was the daughter of Poseidon and Polyphe (…) she was called Hippeia from having first constructed a chariot (…) the war-cart, like poseidon, passed from Libye in to Greece.’[8]

Apotheosis of Heracles
Attic Red Figure on Pelike, c. 410BC
Antikensammlungen, Munich, Germany

In ancient Greece, chariots elevated the rider above ordinary mortals; departing warriors and valiant heroes became godlike. This picture shows Athena taking Heracles to heaven in her chariot after his apotheosis. After being exiled, Peisistratos wanted to win back the support of the Athenians. By riding in the chariot with Athena the vehicle creator and patron of Heroes, he echoes Heracles’ and his ascent to heaven and he asserts himself as superior to normal mortals; he transcends the divine/mortal boundary and he too becomes godlike.

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[1] Herodotus. (c. 5^th Century BC) The Histories, Available from: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.60.4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 (accessed 30.11.11.)

[2] Neils, Jenifer, (1996) Worshipping Athena: Panathenaia and Parthenon, USA: University of Wisconsin, 61.

[3] Pritchett, W. K, (1974) The Greek State at War, Volume 4, USA: University of California Press, 14.

[4] Deacy, S in Ogden, D, (2010) A companion to Greek Religion, UK: John Wiley and Sons, 230.

[5] Fredal, James, (2006) Rhetorical Action in Ancient Athens: Persuasive Artistry from Solon to Demosthenes, USA: SIU Press, 98.

[6] Deacy, Susan, (2008) Athena, UK: Routledge, 48.  

[7] Pausanias, (c. 2^nd Century AD) Description of Greece. Available from: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.30.4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 (accessed 30.11.11.)

[8] Brown, Robert, (2004) The Great Dionysiak Myth Part 1, USA: Kessinger Publishing, 423.